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Leadership studies is a multidisciplinary academic field of study that focuses on leadership in organizational contexts and in human life. Leadership studies has origins in the social sciences (e.g., sociology, anthropology, psychology), in humanities (e.g., history and philosophy), as well as in professional and applied fields of study (e.g., management and education). The field of leadership studies is closely linked to the field of organizational studies.

As an academic area of inquiry, the study of leadership has been of interest to scholars from a wide variety of disciplinary backgrounds. Today, there are numerous academic programs (spanning several academic colleges and departments) related to the study of leadership. Leadership degree programs generally relate to: aspects of leadership, leadership studies, and organizational leadership (although there are a number of leadership-oriented concentrations in other academic areas).

Leadership has become one of the fastest-growing academic fields in higher education[1][2][3][need quotation to verify][4][need quotation to verify] At all levels, undergraduate through doctoral, an increasing number of colleges and universities have begun developing not only individual courses, but entire degree programs specifically devoted to the study of leadership.[5]

Even among some of the more established and traditional academic disciplines such as engineering, education, and medicine, specialization and concentration areas have developed around the study of leadership. Most of these academic programs have aimed to be multidisciplinary in nature—drawing upon theories and applications from related fields such as sociology, psychology, philosophy, and management. Such an approach, Rost (1991) has argued "allows scholars and practitioners to think radically new thoughts about leadership that are not possible from a unidisciplinary approach" (p. 2).[3]

The study of leadership can be dated back to Plato, Sun Tzu and Machiavelli; however, leadership has only become the focus of contemporary academic studies in the last 60 years, and particularly more so in the last two decades. Contemporary leadership scholars and researchers have often been questioned about the nature of their work, and its place within the academy, but much of the confusion surrounding leadership as a field of study may be attributed to a lack of understanding regarding transdisciplinary, inter-, and multi- disciplinary academic fields of study in general.

The discipline (which encompasses a host of sub-fields) is filled with definitions, theories, styles, functions, competencies, and historical examples of successful and diverse leaders. Collectively, the research findings on leadership provide a far more sophisticated and complex view of the phenomenon than most of the simplistic views presented in the popular press.[6][7]

Some of the earliest studies on leadership include:

• The Ohio State Leadership Studies which began in the 1940s[8] and focused on how leaders could satisfy common group needs. The findings indicated that the two most important dimensions in leadership included: "initiating structure", and "consideration". These characteristics could be either high or low and were independent of one another. The research was based on questionnaires to leaders and subordinates. These questionnaires are known as the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) and the Supervisor Behavior Description Questionnaire (SBDQ).[9] By 1962, the LBDQ was on version XII.

• The Michigan Studies of Leadership[10] which began in the 1950s[11] and indicated that leaders could be classified as either "employee centered," or "job centered." These studies identified three critical characteristics of effective leaders: task oriented behavior, relationship-oriented behavior, and participative leadership.

• McGregors Theory X & Theory Y developed by Douglas McGregor in the 1960s at MIT Sloan School of Management. These theories described employee motivation in the workforce. Both theories begin with the premise that the role of management is to assemble the factors of production, including people, for the economic benefit of the firm. Beyond this point, the two theories of management diverge.

• Blake & Mouton Managerial Grid (1964) – updated in 1991 to the Blake & McCanse Leadership Grid-developed the orientation of "task orientation" and "people orientation" in leader behavior. They developed the leadership grid which focused on concern for results (on the one axis) and concern for people (on the other axis).

In addition to these studies, leadership has been examined from an academic perspective through several theoretical lenses:

• Trait & behavioral theories of leadership: Attempt to describe the types of behavior and personality tendencies associated with effective leadership.

• Situational & contingency theories of leadership: Incorporate environmental and situational considerations into leader behavior.

• Functional leadership theory: Suggests that a leader’s primary responsibility is to see that whatever is necessary in relation to group needs is taken care of.

• Information-Processing Leadership theory:[12] Focuses on the role of social perception in identifying leadership abilities.

• Self Leadership theory:[13] Although behaviorally oriented, the essence of self leadership theory is that behaviors are directed toward the attainment of super-ordinate goals.

• Transactional & Transformational theories of Leadership: The transactional leader focuses on managerial reward and contingent valuation. The transformational leader focuses on motivation and goal attainment.

The first doctoral program in Leadership Studies[14] was established at the University of San Diego in the School of Leadership and Education Sciences in 1979.[15] The first undergraduate school of Leadership Studies was established at the University of Richmond Jepson School of Leadership Studies in 1992.[16]

Empirical, meta-analytic, and theoretical studies have been conducted on various types of leadership. Some of the styles of leadership studied include:

• Ambidextrous leadership
• Democratic Leadership
• Innovation leadership
• Transactional leadership
• Transformational leadership

There are a considerable number of doctoral, masters, and undergraduate degree programs related to the study of leadership. Given that the study of leadership is interdisciplinary, leadership-related degree programs are often situated within various colleges, schools, and departments across different university campuses (e.g., Schools of Education at some universities, Business Schools at other universities, and Graduate and Professional Schools at still other universities). As such, at the doctoral level leadership related degree programs primarily include: Ph.D., Ed.D., and executive doctoral degrees (depending on the situation of the program within the university). At the masters level leadership related degree programs primarily include: Master of Science, Master of Arts, and executive master's degrees. At the undergraduate level leadership related degree programs primarily include: Bachelor of Science and Bachelor of Arts degrees as well as leadership certificate and minor programs.

• Compare: Brungardt, C. L. (1996). "The making of leaders: A review of the research in leadership development and education". The Journal of Leadership Studies. 3 (3): 81–95. doi:10.1177/107179199700300309. The study of leadership has been a major scholarly activity over the last 100 years. The latest edition of The Handbook of Leadership (Bass, 1990) list nearly 8,000 citations and references. In addition, Rost's (1991) research showed a dramatic increase in the number of published books and articles over the last several years.

• Compare: Brungardt, C. L.; Gould, L. V.; Moore, R.; Potts, J. (1997). "The emergence of leadership studies: Linking the traditional outcomes of liberal education with leadership development". The Journal of Leadership Studies. 4 (3): 53–67. doi:10.1177/107179199800400306. Fort Hays State University has joined a growing number of institutions around the nation which are providing curricular activities that educate students about leadership (Brungardt, 1996).

• Rost, J.C. (1991). Leadership for the twenty-first century. New York: Praeger Press. https://books.google.com/books?id=-bM7E8ORH7QC

• Rost, J. C.; Baker, R. A. (2000). "Leadership education in colleges: Toward a 21st century paradigm". The Journal of Leadership Studies. 7 (1): 3–12. doi:10.1177/107179190000700102.

• Guide to College Majors in Leadership (n.d.). What is Leadership and Organizational Management? http://www.worldwidelearn.com/online-education-guide/business/leadership-major.htm

• Doh, J. P (2003). "Can leadership be taught? Perspectives from management educators". Academy of Management Learning and Education. 2 (1): 54–67. doi:10.5465/AMLE.2003.9324025.

• Daloz Parks, S. (2005). Leadership can be taught: A bold approach for a complex world. Cambridge: Harvard Business School Press.

• Khurana, Rakesh (2010) [2007]. From Higher Aims to Hired Hands: The Social Transformation of American Business Schools and the Unfulfilled Promise of Management as a Profession. Princeton University Press. p. 354. ISBN 9781400830862. Retrieved 2013-08-24. Academic concern with the study of leadership began in 1945 with a research program at Ohio State University, under the aegis of the federal government's War Manpower Commission and the Department of labor, known as the Ohio State Leadership Studies[...]

• The Ohio State University (n.d.). Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-04-07. Retrieved 2009-04-06.

• Boje, D. (2000). The Isles Leadership: The Voyage of the Behaviorists. The Leadership Box (Northern Michigan State University) http://business.nmsu.edu/~dboje/teaching/338/behaviors.htm#katz_michigan

• Katz, D., Maccoby, N., and Morse, N. 1950. Productivity, Supervision, and Morale in an Office Situation. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.

• Lord, R. (1994). Leadership and Information Processing: Linking Perceptions and Performance (People and Organizations) https://www.amazon.com/Leadership-Information-Processing-Perceptions-Organizations/dp/0415099013

• Neck, C. P., & Houghton, J. D. (2006). Two decades of self-leadership theory and research: Past developments, present trends, and future possibilities. Journal of Managerial Psychology http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/viewContentItem.do?contentType=Article&contentId=1554367

• University of San Diego (n.d.). Ph.D. in Leadership Studies. School of Leadership and Education Sciences website http://www.sandiego.edu/soles/programs/leadership_studies/academic_programs/doctoral_program/index.php

• University of San Diego (n. d.). History and Facts. School of Leadership and Education Sciences. http://www.sandiego.edu/soles/about/history_and_facts.php

• University of Richmond (n. d.). Jepson School of Leadership Studies http://jepson.richmond.edu/about/index.html

• The Leadership Institute in the Marshall School of Business at the University of Southern California http://www.marshall.usc.edu/mor/leadership-institute.htm

• James McaGregor Burns Academy of Leadership website at the University of Maryland "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2016-03-04.

• Burns, J. M. (2006). Roosevelt, the Soldier of Freedom: 1940–1945. History Book Club https://www.amazon.com/Roosevelt-Soldier-Freedom-James-MacGregor/dp/1582882606

• Posner, B. (n. d.) Santa Clara School of Business faculty webpaage http://www.scu.edu/business/management/faculty/posner-profile.cfm

• Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and Motivation. John Wiley & Sons Press https://www.amazon.com/Work-Motivation-Victor-H-Vroom/dp/0471912050

• Vroom, V. H., & Yetton, P. W. (1976). Leadership and Decision Making. Pittsburgh University Press https://www.amazon.com/Leadership-Decision-Making-Pitt-Paperback-110/dp/0822952653

• See Hoyt, C. L.; Murphy, S. (2016). “Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership.” The Leadership Quarterly, 27 (3): 387–399.

• See Levy, D. M.; Padgitt, K.; Peart, S. J.; Houser, D.; Xiao, E. (2011). “Leadership, cheap talk and really cheap talk.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 77: 40–52.

• See von Rueden, C.; van Vugt, M. (2015). “Leadership in small-scale societies: some implications for leadership evolution and practice.” The Leadership Quarterly, 26: 978-990.

• See Hayter, J. M. (2015). “To End Divisions: Reflections on the Civil Rights Act of 1964." Richmond Journal of Law and Public Interest 18 (4): 499–514.

A business school is a university-level institution that confers degrees in business administration or management. According to Kaplan business schools are "educational institutions that specialize in teaching courses and programs related to business and/or management". Such a school can also be known as school of management, school of business administration, or colloquially b-school or biz school. A business school teaches topics such as accounting, administration, strategy, economics, entrepreneurship, finance, human resource management, management science, management information systems, international business, logistics, marketing, organizational psychology, organizational behavior, public relations, research methods and real estate among others.

There are several forms of business schools, including a school of business, business administration, and management.

1. Most of the university business schools consist of faculties, colleges, or departments within the university, and predominantly teach business courses (e.g. Mannheim Business School).
2. In North America, a business school is often understood to be a university program that offers a graduate Master of Business Administration degrees and/or undergraduate bachelor's degrees (e.g. Harvard Business School).
3. In Europe and Asia, some universities teach predominantly business courses (e.g. Copenhagen Business School).
4. Privately owned business school which is not affiliated with any university (e.g. WHU-Otto Beisheim School of Management).

Kaplan classifies business schools along four Corners:

1. Culture (Europe - US): Independent of their actual (physical) location, business schools can be classified according to whether they follow the European or the US model.
2. Compass (international/global – regional/local): Business schools can be classified along a continuum, with international/ global schools on one end and regional/ local schools on the other.
3. Capital (public – private): Business schools can either be publicly (state) funded or privately funded, for example through endowments or tuition fees.
4. Content (teaching – research): Business school can be classified according to whether a school considers teaching or research to be its primary focus.

Some business schools structure their teaching around the use of case studies (i.e. the case method). Case studies have been used in Graduate and Undergraduate business education for nearly one hundred years. Business cases are historical descriptions of actual business situations. Typically, information is presented about a business firm's products, markets, competition, financial structure, sales volumes, management, employees and other factors influencing the firm's success. The length of a business case study may range from two or three pages to 30 pages, or more.

Students are expected to scrutinize the case study and prepare to discuss strategies and tactics that the firm should employ in the future. Three different methods have been used in business case teaching:

1. Preparing case-specific questions to be answered by the student. This is used with short cases intended for Undergraduate students. The underlying concept is that such students need specific guidance to be able to analyze case studies.
2. Problem-solving analysis is the second method initiated by the Harvard Business School which is by far the most widely used method in MBA and executive development programs. The underlying concept is that with enough practice (hundreds of case analyses) students develop intuitive skills for analyzing and resolving complex business situations. Successful implementation of this method depends heavily on the skills of the discussion leader.
3. A generally applicable strategic planning approach. This third method does not require students to analyze hundreds of cases. A strategic planning model is provided and students are instructed to apply the steps of the model to six – and up to a dozen cases – during a semester. This is sufficient to develop their ability to analyze a complex situation, generate a variety of possible strategies and to select the best ones. In effect, students learn a generally applicable approach to analyze cases studies and real situations. This approach does not make any extraordinary demands on the artistic and dramatic talents of the teacher. Consequently, most professors are capable of supervising the application of this method.

In contrast to the case method some schools use a skills-based approach in teaching business. This approach emphasizes quantitative methods, in particular operations research, management information systems, statistics, organizational behavior, modeling and simulation, and decision science. The leading institution in this method is the Tepper School of Business at Carnegie Mellon University. The goal is to provide students a set of tools that will prepare them to tackle and solve problems.

In addition to teaching students, many business schools run Executive Education programs. These may be either open programs or company-specific programs. Executives may also acquire an MBA title in an Executive MBA program within university of business or from top ranked business schools. Many business schools seek close co-operation with business.

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Code	Concentration	More Info
DM/BA	Doctor of Management
School: University of Phoenix Program: The Doctor of Management (D.M.) degree program in Organizational Leadership provides those with a professional master's degree a means of exploring their personal readiness to become leaders in their professions or their current organizations. The doctoral program creates a perfect opportunity for mid-career professionals to refresh and recreate their commitment to the tasks required of organizational leaders. Learners will think deeply about the current state of organizations and their leadership; create imaginative new applications from what is learned and contribute new knowledge to the profession and society. :: Concentration: Leadership :: Campus    ::  Location: Vancouver, BC, Canada ::  more info

School Description

Doctor of Management (D.M.) program in Organizational Leadership

The Doctor of Management (D.M.) degree program in Organizational Leadership provides those with a professional master's degree a means of exploring their personal readiness to become leaders in their professions or their current organizations.

The doctoral program creates a perfect opportunity for mid-career professionals to refresh and recreate their commitment to the tasks required of organizational leaders. Learners will think deeply about the current state of organizations and their leadership; create imaginative new applications from what is learned and contribute new knowledge to the profession and society.

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