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A bachelor's degree (from Middle Latin baccalaureus) or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin baccalaureatus) is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to seven years (depending on institution and academic discipline). In some institutions and educational systems, some bachelor's degrees can only be taken as graduate or postgraduate degrees after a first degree has been completed. In countries with qualifications frameworks, bachelor's degrees are normally one of the major levels in the framework (sometimes two levels where non-honours and honours bachelor's degrees are considered separately), although some qualifications titled bachelor's degrees may be at other levels (e.g., MBBS) and some qualifications with non-bachelor's titles may be classified as bachelor's degrees (e.g. the Scottish MA and Canadian MD).

The term bachelor in the 12th century referred to a knight bachelor, who was too young or poor to gather vassals under his own banner. By the end of the 13th century, it was also used by junior members of guilds or universities. By folk etymology or wordplay, the word baccalaureus came to be associated with bacca lauri ("laurel berry") in reference to laurels being awarded for academic success or honours.[1]

Under the British system, and those influenced by it, undergraduate academic degrees are differentiated as either non-honours degrees (known variously as pass degrees, ordinary degrees or general degrees) or honours degrees, the latter sometimes denoted by the addition of "(Hons)" after the degree abbreviation.[2]

An honours degree generally requires a higher academic standard than a pass degree, and in some systems an additional year of study beyond the non-honours bachelor's. Some countries, such as Australia, New Zealand and Canada, have a postgraduate "bachelor with honours" degree. This may be taken as a consecutive academic degree, continuing on from the completion of a bachelor's degree program in the same field, or as part of an integrated honours program. These programs typically require completion of a full-year long research thesis project.

Bachelor's degrees in the United States are typically designed to be completed in four years of full-time study, although some programs (such as engineering or architecture)[21] usually take five, and some universities and colleges allow ambitious students (usually with the help of summer school, who are taking many classes each semester or who have existing credit from high school Advanced Placement or International Baccalaureate course exams) to complete them in as little as three years. Some US colleges and universities have a separate academic track known as an "honors" or "scholars" program, generally offered to the top percentile of students (based on GPA), that offers more challenging courses or more individually directed seminars or research projects in lieu of the standard core curriculum. Those students are awarded the same bachelor's degree as students completing the standard curriculum but with the notation in cursu honorum on the transcript and the diploma. Usually, the above Latin honors are separate from the notation for this honors course, but a student in the honors course generally must maintain grades worthy of at least the cum laude notation anyway.[22] Hence, a graduate might receive a diploma Artium Baccalaureatum rite or Artium Baccalaureatum summa cum laude in the regular course or Artium Baccalaureatum summa cum laude in cursu honorum in the honors course.

If the student has completed the requirements for an honors degree only in a particular discipline (e.g., English language and literature), the degree is designated accordingly (e.g., B.A. with Honors in English). In this case, the degree candidate will complete the normal curriculum for all subjects except the selected discipline ("English," in the preceding example). The requirements in either case usually require completion of particular honors seminars, independent research at a level higher than usually required (often with greater personal supervision by faculty than usual), and a written honors thesis in the major subject.

Many universities and colleges in the United States award bachelor's degrees with Latin honors, usually (in ascending order) cum laude ("with honor/praise"), magna cum laude ("with great honor/praise"), summa cum laude ("with highest honor/praise"), and the occasionally seen maxima cum laude ("with maximal honor/praise"). Requirements for such notations of honors generally include minimum grade point averages (GPA), with the highest average required for the summa distinction (or maxima, when that distinction is present). In the case of some schools, such as Bates College, Carleton College, Colby College, Middlebury College, Guilford College, Franklin College Switzerland, and larger universities like the University of Virginia, Princeton University, North Carolina State University, University of Massachusetts Amherst, a senior thesis for degrees in the humanities or laboratory research for natural science (and sometimes social science) degrees is also required. Five notable exceptions are Reed College, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, The Evergreen State College, Sarah Lawrence College, and Bennington College, which do not have deans' lists, Latin honors recognitions, or undergraduate honors programs or subjects.

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• Note the Australian degree is "bachelor", not "bachelor's" in official documents

• "Australian Qualifications Framework" (PDF). January 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 September 2016. Retrieved 11 November 2016.

• "How to apply, honours". monash.edu.au. Archived from the original on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 2014-02-13.

• "Alignment of the AQF with the New Zealand Qualifications Framework and the European Qualifications Framework: consultation paper" (PDF). Australian Qualifications Framework. September 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 11 November 2016.

• "Bachelor of Science (Honours), Courses and Programs". The University of Queensland, Australia. Retrieved 4 September 2011.

• Note the Australian degree is a "masters", not a "master's" in official documents

• "Australia Country Education Profiles" (PDF). Australian Government Department of Education and Training. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-1-76028-290-5. Retrieved 11 November 2016.

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• "Canadian Degree Qualifications Framework" (PDF). Ministerial Statement on Quality Assurance of Degree Education in Canada. Council of Ministers of Education, Canada. 2007. Retrieved 10 November 2016.

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• Note: the English prefix 'Mr.' corresponds to the Dutch prefix 'mr.', meaning a 'meester in de rechten', i.e., a Master of Law, or the English equivalent LL.M.

• "Intercalated Degrees". School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing. University of Glasgow. Retrieved 7 August 2016.

• "Intercalated Degree of Medical Science". The Medical School. University of Sheffield. Retrieved 7 August 2016.

• "The UK Database of Intercalated Medical, Dental and Veterinary Courses". intercalate.co.uk. Hull York Medical School. Retrieved 7 August 2016.

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• "Two-year Honours Degrees Offered: The 'fast-track' Degrees Will Be Piloted at Five Universities". BBC News, 18 April 2006, accessed 8 October 2007: "Students in England can do honours degrees in two years, under new 'fast track' plans to save time and money."

• "Bachelor's + Master's in Just Three Years". University of Buckingham. Retrieved 6 August 2016.

• Cook, Chris (23 June 2011). "UCL set to abandon old degree classifications. Other British universities to follow suit and adopt US-style grading". Financial Times. (Subscription required (help)).

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• "Compare different qualifications". Gov.uk. Retrieved 13 July 2016.

• "Employer's guide to scottish higher education" (PDF). AGCAS Scotland. April 2008. pp. 4–5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2016. Retrieved 7 August 2016.

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• "Design and Industry, San Francisco State University". Archived from the original on 28 June 2013. Retrieved 2 July 2013.

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• "The Frameworks for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies" (PDF). Quality Assurance Agency. November 2014. p. 29. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2016. First degrees in medicine, dentistry and veterinary science comprise an integrated programme of study and professional practice spanning several levels. While the final outcomes of the qualifications themselves typically meet the expectations of the descriptor for a higher education qualification at level 7/level 11, these qualifications may often retain, for historical reasons, titles of Bachelor of Medicine/Bachelor of Surgery, Bachelor of Dental Surgery, Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine, or Bachelor of Veterinary Science and are abbreviated to MBChB or BM BS, BDS, BVetMed, and BVSc, respectively.

• "Medicine". Debrett's. Retrieved 18 September 2016.

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• "Bachelor of Urban Planning". College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, University of Cincinnati. Retrieved 3 April 2015.

• Boult, T. E., Chamillard, A. T., Lewis, R., Polok, N., Stock, G., & Wortman, D. (2009). Innovations in University Education in Innovation: Moving Beyond the B.Sc. International Journal of Innovation Science, 1(4), 167–178.

• Wits, W. W., Bakker, H. M., & Chechurin, L. S. (2012). Towards multidisciplinary support tools for innovation tasks. Procedia CIRP, 2, 16–21

Colleges and universities around the world offer bachelor's degrees, graduate degrees, diplomas and certificates in management, generally within their colleges of business, business schools or faculty of management but also in other related departments. In the 2010s, there has been an increase in online management education and training in the form of electronic educational technology ( also called e-learning). Online education has increased the accessibility of management training to people who do not live near a college or university, or who cannot afford to travel to a city where such training is available.

While some professions require academic credentials in order to work in the profession (e.g., law, medicine, engineering, which require, respectively the Bachelor of Law, Doctor of Medicine and Bachelor of Engineering degrees), management and administration positions do not necessarily require the completion of academic degrees. Some well-known senior executives in the US who did not complete a degree include Steve Jobs, Bill Gates and Mark Zuckerberg. However, many managers and executives have completed some type of business or management training, such as a Bachelor of Commerce or a Master of Business Administration degree. Some major organizations, including companies, not-for-profit organizations and governments, require applicants to managerial or executive positions to hold at minimum Bachelor's degree in a field related to administration or management, or in the case of business jobs, a Bachelor of Commerce or a similar degree.

Undergraduate

At the undergraduate level, the most common business program is the Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.). However to manage technological areas, you need an undergraduate degree in a STEM area as preferred to Defense Acquisition University guidelines. This is typically a four-year program that includes courses that give students an overview of the role of managers in planning and directing within an organization. Course topics include accounting, financial management, statistics, marketing, strategy, and other related areas. There are many other undergraduate degrees that include the study of management, such as Bachelor of Arts degrees with a major in business administration or management and Bachelor of Public Administration (B.P.A), a degree designed for individuals aiming to work as bureaucrats in the government jobs. Many colleges and universities also offer certificates and diplomas in business administration or management, which typically require one to two years of full-time study.

Graduate

At the graduate level students aiming at careers as managers or executives may choose to specialize in major subareas of management or business administration such as entrepreneurship, human resources, international business, organizational behavior, organizational theory, strategic management, accounting, corporate finance, entertainment, global management, healthcare management, investment management, sustainability and real estate. A Master of Business Administration (MBA) is the most popular professional degree at the master's level and can be obtained from many universities in the United States. MBA programs provide further education in management and leadership for graduate students. Other master's degrees in business and management include Master of Management (MM) and the Master of Science (M.Sc.) in business administration or management, which is typically taken by students aiming to become researchers or professors. There are also specialized master's degrees in administration for individuals aiming at careers outside of business, such as the Master of Public Administration (MPA) degree (also offered as a Master of Arts in Public Administration in some universities), for students aiming to become managers or executives in the public service and the Master of Health Administration, for students aiming to become managers or executives in the health care and hospital sector.

Management doctorates are the most advanced terminal degrees in the field of business and management. Most individuals obtaining management doctorates take the programs to obtain the training in research methods, statistical analysis and writing academic papers that they will need to seek careers as researchers, senior consultants and/or professors in business administration or management. There are three main types of management doctorates: the Doctor of Management (D.M.), the Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.), and the Ph.D. in Business Administration or Management. In the 2010s, doctorates in business administration and management are available with many specializations.

Puerto Rico[a] (Spanish for "Rich Port"), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Spanish: Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit. "Free Associated State of Puerto Rico")[b] and briefly called Porto Rico,[c][16][17][18] is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea, approximately 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southeast of Miami, Florida.

Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico  (Spanish)
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: "Joannes est nomen ejus" (Latin) "John is his name"
Anthem: "La Borinqueña"[a] "The Borinquenian" "The Star-Spangled Banner"
Great Seal
Status	Unincorporated territory
Capital and largest city	San Juan 18°27′N 66°6′W
Official languages	Spanish English[1]
Common languages	94.3% Spanish[2] 5.5% English 0.2% French 0.1% Other
Ethnic groups	75.8% White 12.4% Black 3.3% Two or more races 0.5% Indigenous American & Alaskan Native 0.2% Asian <0.1% Pacific Islander 7.8% Other[3]
Demonym(s)	Puerto Rican Boricua (colloquial)
Sovereign state	United States
Government	Commonwealth[b]
• Governor	Ricardo Rosselló
• Resident Commissioner	Jenniffer González
• Senate President	Thomas Rivera Schatz
• House Speaker	Johnny Méndez
• Chief Justice	Maite Oronoz Rodríguez
Legislature	Legislative Assembly
• Upper house	Senate
• Lower house	House of Representatives
Commonwealth  within the United States
• Cession from Spain	December 10, 1898
• Treaty of Paris ratified	April 11, 1899[4]
• U.S. citizenship granted	March 2, 1917
• Constitution adopted	July 25, 1952
Area
• Total	9,104 km2 (3,515 sq mi)
• Water (%)	1.6
Population
• 2018 estimate	3,195,153[5][6] (136th)
• 2010 census	3,725,789
• Density	351/km2 (909.1/sq mi) (39th)
GDP (PPP)	2018 estimate
• Total	$129.908 billion[7] (75th)
• Per capita	$39,763[7] (29th)
GDP (nominal)	2018 estimate
• Total	$104.557[7] (62nd)
• Per capita	$32,004[7] (32nd)
Gini (2011)	53.1[8] high
HDI (2015)	0.845[9] very high · 40th
Currency	United States dollar (USD)
Time zone	UTC−4 (Atlantic)
• Summer (DST)	UTC−4 (no longer observed)
Driving side	right
Calling code	+1-787, +1-939
ISO 3166 code	PR
Internet TLD	.pr
^ "The Star-Spangled Banner" serves as the national anthem for the United States of America and its territories. ^ The term 'Commonwealth' does not describe or provide for any specific political status or relationship. It has, for example, been applied to both states and territories. When used in connection with areas under U.S. sovereignty that are not states, the term broadly describes an area that has a constitution of its adoption.[10]

An archipelago among the Greater Antilles, Puerto Rico includes the eponymous main island and several smaller islands, such as Mona, Culebra, and Vieques. The capital and most populous city is San Juan. The territory's total population is approximately 3.4 million. Spanish and English are the official languages, though Spanish predominates.[19]

Originally populated by the indigenous Taíno people, Puerto Rico was colonized by Spain following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1493. It was contested by French, Dutch, and British, but remained a Spanish possession for the next four centuries. The island's cultural and demographic landscapes were shaped by the displacement and assimilation of the native population, the forced migration of African slaves, and settlement from the Canary Islands and Andalusia. In the Spanish Empire, Puerto Rico played a secondary but strategic role compared to wealthier colonies like Peru and New Spain.[20][21] Spain's distant administrative control continued up to the end of the 19th century, producing a distinctive creole Hispanic culture and language that combined indigenous, African, and European elements.[22] In 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States acquired Puerto Rico under the terms of the Treaty of Paris.[4]

Puerto Ricans have been citizens of the United States since 1917, and enjoy freedom of movement between the island and the mainland.[23] As it is not a state, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. However, Puerto Rico does have one non-voting member of the House called a Resident Commissioner. As residents of a U.S. territory, American citizens in Puerto Rico are disenfranchised at the national level and do not vote for president and vice president of the United States,[24] nor pay federal income tax on Puerto Rican income. Like other territories and the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico does not have U.S. senators. Congress approved a local constitution in 1952, allowing U.S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. Puerto Rico's future political status has consistently been a matter of significant debate.[25][26]

In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt had climbed to $70 billion at a time with 12.4% unemployment. The debt had been increasing during a decade long recession.[27] This was the second major financial crisis to affect the island after the Great Depression when the U.S. government, in 1935, provided relief efforts through the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration.[28] On May 3, 2017, Puerto Rico's financial oversight board in the U.S. District Court for Puerto Rico filed the debt restructuring petition which was made under Title III of PROMESA.[29] By early August 2017, the debt was $72 billion with a 45% poverty rate.[30]

In late September 2017, Hurricane Maria made landfall in Puerto Rico, causing devastating damage.[31] The island's electrical grid was largely destroyed, with repairs expected to take months to complete, provoking the largest power outage in American history.[32] Recovery efforts were somewhat slow in the first few months, and over 200,000 residents had moved to the mainland State of Florida alone by late November 2017.[33]

The economy of Puerto Rico is classified as a high income economy by the World Bank and as the most competitive economy in Latin America by the World Economic Forum but Puerto Rico currently has a public debt of $72.204 billion (equivalent to 103% of GNP), and a government deficit of $2.5 billion.[284][285] According to World Bank, gross national income per capita of Puerto Rico in 2013 is $23,830 (PPP, International Dollars), ranked as 63rd among all sovereign and dependent territories entities in the world.[286] Its economy is mainly driven by manufacturing (primarily pharmaceuticals, textiles, petrochemicals and electronics) followed by the service industry (primarily finance, insurance, real estate and tourism).[n][o] In recent years, the territory has also become a popular destination for MICE (meetings, incentives, conferencing, exhibitions), with a modern convention centre district overlooking the Port of San Juan.[288]

The geography of Puerto Rico and its political status are both determining factors on its economic prosperity, primarily due to its relatively small size as an island; its lack of natural resources used to produce raw materials[citation needed], and, consequently, its dependence on imports; as well as its territorial status with the United States, which controls its foreign policy while exerting trading restrictions, particularly in its shipping industry.

Puerto Rico experienced a recession from 2006 to 2011, interrupted by 4 quarters of economic growth, and entered into recession again in 2013, following growing fiscal imbalance and the expiration of the IRS Section 936 corporate incentives that the U.S. Internal Revenue Code had applied to Puerto Rico. This IRS section was critical to the economy, as it established tax exemptions for U.S. corporations that settled in Puerto Rico, and allowed their insular subsidiaries to send their earnings to the parent corporation at any time, without paying federal tax on corporate income. Puerto Rico has surprisingly been able to maintain a relatively low inflation in the past decade while maintaining a purchasing power parity per capita higher than 80% of the rest of the world.[289]

Academically, most of Puerto Rico's economic woes stem from federal regulations that expired, have been repealed, or no longer apply to Puerto Rico; its inability to become self-sufficient and self-sustainable throughout history;[p] its highly politicized public policy which tends to change whenever a political party gains power;[q] as well as its highly inefficient local government[r][s] which has accrued a public debt equal to 68% of its gross domestic product throughout time.[t][u]

In comparison to the different states of the United States, Puerto Rico is poorer than Mississippi (the poorest state of the U.S.) with 41% of its population below the poverty line.[v] When compared to Latin America, Puerto Rico has the highest GDP per capita in the region. Its main trading partners are the United States itself, Ireland, and Japan, with most products coming from East Asia, mainly from China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. At a global scale, Puerto Rico's dependency on oil for transportation and electricity generation, as well as its dependency on food imports and raw materials, makes Puerto Rico volatile and highly reactive to changes in the world economy and climate. Puerto Rico's agricultural sector represents less than 1% of GNP.[296]

The first school in Puerto Rico was the Escuela de Gramática (Grammar School). It was established by Bishop Alonso Manso in 1513, in the area where the Cathedral of San Juan was to be constructed. The school was free of charge and the courses taught were Latin language, literature, history, science, art, philosophy and theology.[329]

Education in Puerto Rico is divided in three levels—Primary (elementary school grades 1–6), Secondary (intermediate and high school grades 7–12), and Higher Level (undergraduate and graduate studies). As of 2002, the literacy rate of the Puerto Rican population was 94.1%; by gender, it was 93.9% for males and 94.4% for females.[330] According to the 2000 Census, 60.0% of the population attained a high school degree or higher level of education, and 18.3% has a bachelor's degree or higher.

Instruction at the primary school level is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 18. As of 2010, there are 1539 public schools and 806 private schools.[331]

The largest and oldest university system is the public University of Puerto Rico (UPR) with 11 campuses. The largest private university systems on the island are the Sistema Universitario Ana G. Mendez which operates the Universidad del Turabo, Metropolitan University and Universidad del Este. Other private universities include the multi-campus Inter American University, the Pontifical Catholic University, Universidad Politécnica de Puerto Rico, and the Universidad del Sagrado Corazón. Puerto Rico has four schools of Medicine and three ABA-approved Law Schools.

• "P. Rico Senate declares Spanish over English as first official language". News Report. San Juan, Puerto Rico. Agencia EFE. September 4, 2015. Retrieved February 7, 2016.

• "Puerto Rico 2012–2016 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates". US Census. Department of Commerce. 2016. Retrieved September 25, 2017.

• "2010 Census: Puerto Rico Profile" (PDF). Retrieved June 26, 2014.

• http://www.easternct.edu/inthenews/files/2016/01/Eastern-Talk-Explains-Puerto-Ricos-Status-Chronicle_20170925_03_1.pdf Puerto Rico's Status Explained. ECSU Takes A Look At Island's History. Michelle Firestone. September 25, 2017. Retrieved January 11, 2018.

• "Nevada and Idaho Are the Nation's Fastest-Growing States". United States Census Bureau. December 19, 2018. Retrieved December 30, 2018.

• "QuickFacts Puerto Rico; UNITED STATES". 2018 Population Estimates. United States Census Bureau, Population Division. February 26, 2019. Retrieved February 26, 2019.

• "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2018". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 11 March 2019.

• "Household Income for States: 2010 and 2011" (PDF). U.S. Census Bureau. September 2012. Retrieved May 16, 2014.

• Fuentes-Ramírez, Ricardo R. (2017). "Human Development Index Trends and Inequality in Puerto Rico 2010–2015" (PDF). Ceteris Paribus: Journal of Socio-Economic Research. 7. Retrieved May 15, 2017.

• "Definition of Terms – 1120 Acquisition of U.S. Nationality in U.S. Territories and Possessions". U.S. Department of State Foreign Affairs Manual Volume 7 – Consular Affairs. U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 22, 2015. Retrieved December 2, 2018.

• Amaral, Patrícia & Ana Maria Carvalho (2014). Portuguese-Spanish Interfaces: Diachrony, synchrony, and contact. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 130. ISBN 9789027258007.

• Pedro A. Malavet (2004). America's colony: the political and cultural conflict between the United States and Puerto Rico. NYU Press. pp. 43, 181 note 76. ISBN 978-0-8147-5680-5.

• To change the name of the island of "Porto Rico" to "Puerto Rico," S.J. Res 36, 72nd Congress, enacted 1932. (47 Stat. 158)

• Patricia Gherovici (2003). The Puerto Rican syndrome. Other Press, LLC. pp. 140–141. ISBN 978-1-892746-75-7.

• Historian, Office of the (January 1, 2013). Hispanic Americans in Congress, 1822–2012. Government Printing Office. ISBN 9780160920684.

• Secretary's, Puerto Rico; Office, Puerto Rico Secretary's (January 1, 1903). Register of Porto Rico. Office of the Secretary.

• Deusen, Richard James Van; Deusen, Elizabeth Kneipple Van (1931). Porto Rico: A Caribbean Isle. Henry Holt.

• Sciences, New York Academy of (1922). Scientific survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands. New York Academy of Sciences.

• "Archived copy". Archived from the original on September 12, 2015. Retrieved September 21, 2015.

• Caban, Pedro A. (2009). Constructing A Colonial People: Puerto Rico And The United States, 1898–1932. Westview Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0786748174.

• Santiago-Valles, Kelvin A. (1994). Subject People and Colonial Discourses: Economic Transformation and Social Disorder in Puerto Rico, 1898–1947. SUNY Press. p. ix. ISBN 978-0791415894.

• Lipski, John M. (2005). A History of Afro-Hispanic Language: Five Centuries, Five Continents. Cambridge University Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-1107320376.

• 8 U.S. Code § 1402 – Persons born in Puerto Rico on or after April 11, 1899 (1941) Retrieved: January 14, 2015.

• Igartúa–de la Rosa v. United States (Igartúa III) Archived March 16, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, 417 F.3d 145 (1st Cir. 2005) (en banc), GREGORIO IGARTÚA, ET AL., Plaintiffs, Appellants, v. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, ET AL., Defendants, Appellees. No. 09-2186 Archived September 5, 2018, at the Wayback Machine (November 24, 2010)

• "Puerto Rico's Political Status and the 2012 Plebiscite: Background and Key Questions" (PDF). fas.org. Congressional Research Service. June 25, 2013. Retrieved January 17, 2016.

• "El Nuevo Día". Elnuevodia.com.

• "Puerto Rico Gets More Time". Star Herald. Scottsbluff, ME. Associated Press. January 29, 2017. Retrieved February 16, 2017. [permanent dead link]

• Dietz, James (1986). Economic History of Puerto Rico. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 154.

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