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| Mississippi state symbols | |
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| Living insignia | |
| Bird |
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| Butterfly |
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| Fish |
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| Flower | Magnolia |
| Insect |
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| Mammal | White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) |
| Reptile |
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| Tree |
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| Inanimate insignia | |
| Beverage | Milk |
| Colors | red and blue |
| Dance | Clogging |
| Food | Sweet potato |
| Gemstone | Emerald |
| Mineral | Gold |
| Rock | Granite |
| Shell |
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| Slogan | First Flight (unofficial) |
| State route marker | |
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| State quarter | |
Released in 2002 |
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| Lists of United States state symbols | |
The state is heavily forested outside the Mississippi Delta area, which is the area between the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers. Before the American Civil War, most development in the state was along riverfronts, as the waterways were critical for transportation. Large gangs of slaves were used to work on cotton plantations. After the war, freedmen began to clear the bottomlands to the interior, in the process selling off timber and buying property. By the end of the 19th century, African Americans made up two-thirds of the Delta's property owners, but timber and railroad companies acquired much of the land after the financial crisis, which occurred when blacks were facing increasing racial discrimination and disfranchisement in the state.
Clearing of the land for plantations altered the Delta's ecology, increasing the severity of flooding along the Mississippi by taking out trees and bushes that had absorbed excess waters. Much land is now held by agribusinesses. A largely rural state with agricultural areas dominated by industrial farms, Mississippi is ranked low or last among the states in such measures as health, educational attainment, and median household income.[5][6][7] The state's catfish aquaculture farms produce the majority of farm-raised catfish consumed in the United States.[8]
Since the 1930s and the Great Migration of African Americans to the North and West, the majority of Mississippi's population has been white, although the state still has the highest percentage of black residents of any U.S. state. From the early 19th century to the 1930s, its residents were majority black, and before the American Civil War that population was composed largely of African-American slaves. Democratic Party whites retained political power through disfranchisement and Jim Crow laws. In the first half of the 20th century, nearly 400,000 rural blacks left the state for work and opportunities in northern and midwestern cities, with another wave of migration around World War II to West Coast cities. In the early 1960s, Mississippi was the poorest state in the nation, with 86% of its non-whites living below the poverty level.[9]
In 2010, 37% of Mississippians were African Americans, the highest percentage of African Americans in any U.S. state. Since regaining enforcement of their voting rights in the late 1960s, most African Americans have supported Democratic candidates in local, state and national elections. Conservative whites have shifted to the Republican Party. African Americans are a majority in many counties of the Mississippi-Yazoo Delta, an area of historic slave settlement during the plantation era.
The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that Mississippi's total state product in 2010 was $98 billion.[114] GDP growth was .5 percent in 2015 and is estimated to be 2.4 in 2016 according to Dr. Darrin Webb, the state's chief economist, who noted it would make two consecutive years of positive growth since the recession.[115] Per capita personal income in 2006 was $26,908, the lowest per capita personal income of any state, but the state also has the nation's lowest living costs. 2015 data records the adjusted per capita personal income at $40,105.[115] Mississippians consistently rank as one of the highest per capita in charitable contributions.[116]
At 56 percent, the state has one of the lowest workforce participation rates in the country. Approximately 70,000 adults are disabled, which is 10 percent of the workforce.[115]
Mississippi's rank as one of the poorest states is related to its dependence on cotton agriculture before and after the Civil War, late development of its frontier bottomlands in the Mississippi Delta, repeated natural disasters of flooding in the late 19th and early 20th century that required massive capital investment in levees, and ditching and draining the bottomlands, and slow development of railroads to link bottomland towns and river cities.[117] In addition, when Democrats regained control of the state legislature, they passed the 1890 constitution that discouraged corporate industrial development in favor of rural agriculture, a legacy that would slow the state's progress for years.[118]
Before the Civil War, Mississippi was the fifth-wealthiest state in the nation, its wealth generated by the labor of slaves in cotton plantations along the rivers.[119] Slaves were counted as property and the rise in the cotton markets since the 1840s had increased their value. By 1860, a majority – 55 percent – of the population of Mississippi was enslaved.[120] Ninety percent of the Delta bottomlands were undeveloped and the state had low overall density of population.
Largely due to the domination of the plantation economy, focused on the production of agricultural cotton, the state's elite was reluctant to invest in infrastructure such as roads and railroads. They educated their children privately. Industrialization did not reach many areas until the late 20th century. The planter aristocracy, the elite of antebellum Mississippi, kept the tax structure low for their own benefit, making only private improvements. Before the war the most successful planters, such as Confederate President Jefferson Davis, owned riverside properties along the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers in the Mississippi Delta. Away from the riverfronts, most of the Delta was undeveloped frontier.
During the Civil War, 30,000 Mississippi soldiers, mostly white, died from wounds and disease, and many more were left crippled and wounded. Changes to the labor structure and an agricultural depression throughout the South caused severe losses in wealth. In 1860 assessed valuation of property in Mississippi had been more than $500 million, of which $218 million (43 percent) was estimated as the value of slaves. By 1870, total assets had decreased in value to roughly $177 million.[121]
Poor whites and landless former slaves suffered the most from the postwar economic depression. The constitutional convention of early 1868 appointed a committee to recommend what was needed for relief of the state and its citizens. The committee found severe destitution among the laboring classes.[122] It took years for the state to rebuild levees damaged in battles. The upset of the commodity system impoverished the state after the war. By 1868 an increased cotton crop began to show possibilities for free labor in the state, but the crop of 565,000 bales produced in 1870 was still less than half of prewar figures.[123]
Blacks cleared land, selling timber and developing bottomland to achieve ownership. In 1900, two-thirds of farm owners in Mississippi were blacks, a major achievement for them and their families. Due to the poor economy, low cotton prices and difficulty of getting credit, many of these farmers could not make it through the extended financial difficulties. Two decades later, the majority of African Americans were sharecroppers. The low prices of cotton into the 1890s meant that more than a generation of African Americans lost the result of their labor when they had to sell their farms to pay off accumulated debts.[41]
After the Civil War, the state refused for years to build human capital by fully educating all its citizens. In addition, the reliance on agriculture grew increasingly costly as the state suffered loss of cotton crops due to the devastation of the boll weevil in the early 20th century, devastating floods in 1912–1913 and 1927, collapse of cotton prices after 1920, and drought in 1930.[117]
It was not until 1884, after the flood of 1882, that the state created the Mississippi-Yazoo Delta District Levee Board and started successfully achieving longer term plans for levees in the upper Delta.[23] Despite the state's building and reinforcing levees for years, the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 broke through and caused massive flooding of 27,000 square miles (70,000 km2) throughout the Delta, homelessness for hundreds of thousands, and millions of dollars in property damages. With the Depression coming so soon after the flood, the state suffered badly during those years. In the Great Migration, hundreds of thousands of African Americans migrated North and West for jobs and chances to live as full citizens.
Until the Civil War era, Mississippi had a small number of schools and no educational institutions for African Americans. The first school for black students was not established until 1862.
During Reconstruction in 1871, black and white Republicans drafted a constitution that was the first to provide for a system of free public education in the state. The state's dependence on agriculture and resistance to taxation limited the funds it had available to spend on any schools. In the early 20th century, there were still few schools in rural areas, particularly for black children. With seed money from the Julius Rosenwald Fund, many rural black communities across Mississippi raised matching funds and contributed public funds to build new schools for their children. Essentially, many black adults taxed themselves twice and made significant sacrifices to raise money for the education of children in their communities, in many cases donating land and/or labor to build such schools.[143]
Blacks and whites attended segregated and separate public schools in Mississippi until the late 1960s, although such segregation had been declared unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court in its 1954 ruling in Brown v. Board of Education. In the majority-black Mississippi Delta counties, white parents worked through White Citizens' Councils to set up private segregation academies, where they enrolled their children. Often funding declined for the public schools.[144]
But in the state as a whole, only a small minority of white children were withdrawn from public schools. State officials believed they needed to maintain public education to attract new businesses. After several years of integration, whites often dominated local systems anyway, maintaining white supremacy. Many black parents complained that they had little representation in school administration, and that many of their former administrators and teachers had been pushed out. They have had to work to have their interests and children represented.[144]
In the late 1980s, the state had 954 public elementary and secondary schools, with a total yearly enrollment of about 369,500 elementary pupils and about 132,500 secondary students. Some 45,700 students attended private schools.
In the 21st century, 91% of white children in the state attend public schools and most of the black children.[145] In 2008, Mississippi was ranked last among the fifty states in academic achievement by the American Legislative Exchange Council's Report Card on Education,[146] with the lowest average ACT scores and sixth-lowest spending per pupil in the nation. In contrast, Mississippi had the 17th-highest average SAT scores in the nation. As an explanation, the Report noted that 92% of Mississippi high school graduates took the ACT, but only 3% of graduates took the SAT, apparently a self-selection of higher achievers. This breakdown compares to the national average of high school graduates taking the ACT and SAT, of 43% and 45%, respectively.[146]
Although unusual in the West, school corporal punishment is common in Mississippi, with 31,236 public school students[147] paddled at least one time.[148] A greater percentage of students were paddled in Mississippi than in any other state, according to government data for the 2011–2012 school year.[148]
In 2007, Mississippi students scored the lowest of any state on the National Assessments of Educational Progress in both math and science.[149]
Jackson, the state's capital city, is the site of the state residential school for deaf and hard of hearing students. The Mississippi School for the Deaf was established by the state legislature in 1854 before the civil war.
The Mississippi School for Mathematics and Science (MSMS) is a public residential high school for academically gifted students. It is located in Columbus, Mississippi on the campus of the Mississippi University for Women. MSMS was founded in 1987 by appropriations from the Mississippi Legislature and it is the fourth public, residential high school for academically gifted students in the United States.[3] The school enrolls students only in the last two years of high school. Rising tenth-grade students from across the state apply and are selected on a competitive basis.
The Mississippi School of the Arts (MSA) is an upper high school of literary, visual, and performing arts on the historic Whitworth College Campus in Brookhaven, Mississippi, about sixty miles (97 km) south of Jackson, Mississippi.[1] MSA teaches 11th and 12th grade students. The campus has six buildings designated as Mississippi Landmarks, and is itself an historic district listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.[1]
The Mississippi School of the Arts provides advanced, residential programs of study in visual arts, vocal music, theatre, dance, and literary arts for "artistically gifted" 11th/12th grade students from throughout Mississippi.[3][1] The comprehensive residential and academic curriculum prepares students for further studies or to pursue employment. Some non-arts courses (some math, science, etc.) are taught in conjunction with Brookhaven High School, 6 blocks away, to provide a wider curriculum.[1] Students apply for admission during their second year.[1]
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- Bolton, Charles C. The Hardest Deal of All: The Battle Over School Integration in Mississippi, 1870–1980. University Press of Mississippi, 2005, pp. 136, 178–179. ISBN 1604730609, 9781604730609.
- Bolton (2005). The Hardest Deal of All. pp. 178–179.
- "Report Card on Education" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 7, 2011.
- Please note this figure refers to only the number of students paddled, regardless of whether a student was spanked multiple times in a year, and does not refer to the number of instances of corporal punishment, which would be substantially higher.
- Farrell, Colin (February 2016). "Corporal punishment in US schools". World Corporal Punishment Research. Retrieved April 4, 2016.
- Dillon, Sam (November 14, 2007). "Study Compares States' Math and Science Scores With Other Countries'". The New York Times. Retrieved May 12, 2010. , The New York Times (2007)
A business school is a university-level institution that confers degrees in business administration or management. According to Kaplan business schools are "educational institutions that specialize in teaching courses and programs related to business and/or management".[1] Such a school can also be known as school of management, school of business administration, or colloquially b-school or biz school. A business school teaches topics such as accounting, administration, strategy, economics, entrepreneurship, finance, human resource management, management science, management information systems, international business, logistics, marketing, organizational psychology, organizational behavior, public relations, research methods and real estate among others.
There are several forms of business schools, including a school of business, business administration, and management.
- Most of the university business schools consist of faculties, colleges, or departments within the university, and predominantly teach business courses (e.g. Mannheim Business School).
- In North America, a business school is often understood to be a university program that offers a graduate Master of Business Administration degrees and/or undergraduate bachelor's degrees (e.g. Harvard Business School).
- In Europe and Asia, some universities teach predominantly business courses (e.g. Copenhagen Business School).
- Privately owned business school which is not affiliated with any university (e.g. WHU-Otto Beisheim School of Management).
Kaplan classifies business schools along four Corners:[2]
- Culture (Europe - US): Independent of their actual (physical) location, business schools can be classified according to whether they follow the European or the US model.
- Compass (international/global – regional/local): Business schools can be classified along a continuum, with international/ global schools on one end and regional/ local schools on the other.
- Capital (public – private): Business schools can either be publicly (state) funded or privately funded, for example through endowments or tuition fees.
- Content (teaching – research): Business school can be classified according to whether a school considers teaching or research to be its primary focus.
Common degrees are as follows.
- Associate's degree: AA, AAB, ABA, AS
- Bachelor's Degrees:
BCom, BA, BS, BBA (Bachelor of Business Administration), BBus (Bachelor of Business), BSBA, BAcc, BABA, BBS, BMOS and BBusSc (Bachelor of Business Science)
- Master's Degrees: MBA, MBM, Master of Management, MAcc, MMR, MSMR, MPA, MISM, MSM, MHA, MSF, MSc, MST, MMS, EMBA and MCom. At Oxford and Cambridge business schools an MPhil or MSc, is awarded in place of an MA.
- Doctoral Degrees: Ph.D., DBA, DHA, DM, Doctor of Commerce (DCOM), PhD in Management or Business Doctorate (Doctor of Philosophy), Doctor of Professional Studies (DPS)
Some business schools structure their teaching around the use of case studies (i.e. the case method). Case studies have been used in Graduate and Undergraduate business education for nearly one hundred years. Business cases are historical descriptions of actual business situations. Typically, information is presented about a business firm's products, markets, competition, financial structure, sales volumes, management, employees and other factors influencing the firm's success. The length of a business case study may range from two or three pages to 30 pages, or more.
Business schools often obtain case studies published by the Harvard Business School, INSEAD, London Business School, the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University, the Ross School of Business at the University of Michigan, the Richard Ivey School of Business at The University of Western Ontario, the Darden School at the University of Virginia, IESE, other academic institutions, or case clearing houses (such as The Case Centre). Harvard's most popular case studies include Lincoln Electric Co.[44] and Google, Inc.[45]
Students are expected to scrutinize the case study and prepare to discuss strategies and tactics that the firm should employ in the future. Three different methods have been used in business case teaching:
- Preparing case-specific questions to be answered by the student. This is used with short cases intended for Undergraduate students. The underlying concept is that such students need specific guidance to be able to analyze case studies.
- Problem-solving analysis is the second method initiated by the Harvard Business School which is by far the most widely used method in MBA and executive development programs. The underlying concept is that with enough practice (hundreds of case analyses) students develop intuitive skills for analyzing and resolving complex business situations. Successful implementation of this method depends heavily on the skills of the discussion leader.
- A generally applicable strategic planning approach. This third method does not require students to analyze hundreds of cases. A strategic planning model is provided and students are instructed to apply the steps of the model to six – and up to a dozen cases – during a semester. This is sufficient to develop their ability to analyze a complex situation, generate a variety of possible strategies and to select the best ones. In effect, students learn a generally applicable approach to analyze cases studies and real situations.[46] This approach does not make any extraordinary demands on the artistic and dramatic talents of the teacher. Consequently, most professors are capable of supervising the application of this method.
In contrast to the case method some schools use a skills-based approach in teaching business. This approach emphasizes quantitative methods, in particular operations research, management information systems, statistics, organizational behavior, modeling and simulation, and decision science. The leading institution in this method is the Tepper School of Business at Carnegie Mellon University. The goal is to provide students a set of tools that will prepare them to tackle and solve problems.
Another important approach used in business school is the use of business games that are used in different disciplines such as business, economics, management, etc. Some colleges are blending many of these approaches throughout their degree programs, and even blending the method of delivery for each of these approaches. A study from by Inside Higher Ed and the Babson Survey Research Group[48] shows that there is still disagreement as to the effectiveness of the approaches but the reach and accessibility is proving to be more and more appealing. Liberal arts colleges in the United States like New England College,[49] Wesleyan University,[50] and Bryn Mawr College are now offering complete online degrees in many business curriculae despite the controversy that surrounds the learning method.
There are also several business schools which still rely on the lecture method to give students a basic business education. Lectures are generally given from the professor's point of view, and rarely require interaction from the students unless notetaking is required. Lecture as a method of teaching in business schools has been criticized by experts for reducing the incentive and individualism in the learning experience.[51]
- "Andreas Kaplan: A school is "a building that has four walls…with tomorrow inside": Toward the reinvention of the business school". Business Horizons. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2018.03.010.
- "Andreas Kaplan: A school is "a building that has four walls…with tomorrow inside": Toward the reinvention of the business school". Business Horizons. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2018.03.010.
- Rodrigues, Lúcia Lima. "Aula do Comércio (1759-1844): Primeiro Estabelecimento Governamental de Ensino de Contabilidade" (PDF) (in Portuguese). Ordem dos Técnicos Oficiais de Contas. Retrieved 9 April 2012.
- Rodrigues, Lúcia Lima. "Aula do Comércio (1759-1844): Primeiro Estabelecimento Governamental de Ensino de Contabilidade" (PDF) (in Portuguese). Ordem dos Técnicos Oficiais de Contas. Retrieved 9 April 2012.
- "Andreas Kaplan: European Management and European Business Schools: Insights from the History of Business Schools". European Management Journal. 32: 529–534. doi:10.1016/j.emj.2014.03.006.
- "Focus On - Generation Europe Foundation - Career Guidance (page 5)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-17.
- "ESCP EUROPE - Torino". TopUniversities. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
- Mansoor Iqbal (2 December 2015). "The 10 Top European Business Schools According to International Recruiters". TopMBA. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
- "The University of Antwerp, Belgium". TheCompleteUniversity. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
- Ginibrière, Gaëlle (14 May 2013). "Business Schools: Rouen and Reims unite to view larger". Lefigaro (in French). Retrieved 9 November 2015.
- "Wharton History". The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved 2012-06-03.
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- "Definition: Betriebswirtschaftlehre (BWL)" (in German). Gabler Wirtschaftslexikon. Retrieved 10 June 2012.
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- "History of the MBA MBA Friday Facts". www.topmba.com.
- Kaplan, Andreas M (2014). "European Management and European Business Schools: Insights from the History of Business Schools". European Management Journal. 32: 529–534. doi:10.1016/j.emj.2014.03.006.
- "HANKEN Swedish School of Economics and Business Administration". Helsinki. Archived from the original on 22 November 2015. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
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- Gonzales, Angela (2007-02-05). "Thunderbird school changes name as it seizes new opportunities – Phoenix Business Journal". Phoenix.bizjournals.com. Retrieved 2012-03-22.
- "Thunderbird history showcased through Arizona Memory Project – Thunderbird School of Global Management". Thunderbird.edu. Retrieved 2012-03-22.
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- "Charmed by China". Business Because. Archived from the original on 2011-07-26. Retrieved 2012-03-22.
- "Lincoln Electric Co". Harvardbusinessonline.hbsp.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2012-03-22.
- "Google Inc". Harvardbusinessonline.hbsp.harvard.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-07-11. Retrieved 2012-03-22.
- "Chapter 1.2. A Model for Strategic Planning, Analyzing Cases and Decision Making". Mbatoolbox.org. 2006-02-22. Archived from the original on 2012-02-04. Retrieved 2012-03-22.
- Yumlembam, Dayananda. "MICA innovation to help Harvard business school sharpen teaching tools". Times of India. TNN. Retrieved 9 November 2015. When Harvard Business School was started, its faculty members realized that there were no textbooks suitable to a graduate program in business. That was when they decided to use case studies which are detailed accounts of innovative methods and practices that managers follow.
- Kolowich, Steve (29 June 2012). "Online Learning and Liberal Arts Colleges". Inside Highered. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
- "Bisk Education". bisk.com.
- "Liberal arts college explore uses of 'blended' online learning - InsideHigherEd.com". insidehighered.com.
- J. Scott Armstrong (2012). "Natural Learning in Higher Education". Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning.
- Schreuder, Hein, Jeannet, Jean-Pierre. From Coal to Biotech The Transformation of DSM with Business School Support. ISBN 9783662462997. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
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- "Best Business School Rankings | MBA Program Rankings | US News". Grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com. 2012-03-13. Retrieved 2012-03-22.
- "Business school rankings from the Financial Times - Global MBA Rankings 2012". Rankings.ft.com. Retrieved 2012-03-22.
- "Business Schools". Businessweek. Retrieved 2012-03-22.
- "Business Schools - MBA Rankings and Executive Education Programs - Wsj.com". Online.wsj.com. Archived from the original on 2014-01-16. Retrieved 2012-03-22.
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- J. Scott Armstrong (1994). "Learning versus Teaching: Reply to Commentaries" (PDF). Interfaces. 24: 39–43. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-07-27. Retrieved 2012-02-06.
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